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冷冻食品保质期试验.pdf

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Shelf Life Testing:
vu@{)l0Procedures and Prediction Methods for Frozen食品伙伴个性空间AUti `T|J,\"h([)]
Foods
4p NB8BD5q#IW/VuPq0Bin Fu
s}D G!`0Kellogg's Battle Creek MI食品伙伴个性空间!tj:A aH+@1@
Theodore P. Labuza食品伙伴个性空间:U'_%a(q m@%qrr
Dept. of Food Science & Nutrition, University of Minnesota食品伙伴个性空间&Uuj od"R r
1334 Eckles Ave., St. Paul, MN 55108
dMI ~BGx02
?;o$_@*p[019.1 Introduction食品伙伴个性空间9]({J"g`
The shelf life of a food can be defined as the time period within which the food is safe食品伙伴个性空间;Jn u^]F!y
to consume and/or has an acceptable quality to consumers. Just like any other food,
%F5e5bx!}&u tK GO1lb0frozen foods deteriorate during storage by different modes or mechanisms, as食品伙伴个性空间 MKRg4v)L3J@
summarized in Table 1. Microbes usually are not a problem since they cannot grow at
`u&T$VC{ d0freezing temperatures unless subjected to extensive temperature abuse above the
{e^4e%d V0freezing point. Enzymes are a big concern for frozen foods, which can cause flavor
D E3v:u:tx|gJ0change (lipoxygenase) in non-blanched fruits and vegetables and accelerated
eDyR ~3D0deterioration reactions in meat and poultry (enzymes released from disrupted食品伙伴个性空间z&{!fQ%ZI%}
membranes during precooking). Cell damage or protein and starch interactions during
rs%FZQ f7J)bo5W0freezing cause drip and mushiness upon thawing. Discoloration could occur by nonenzymatic食品伙伴个性空间@'i5@.Y}\ L0t;D
browning, bleaching, and freezer burn. Vitamin C loss is often a major
^6l)I6G9Y|"T"c0concern for frozen vegetables. Physical changes, such as package ice formation,
&IG sr6A+k+j#yDo0moisture loss, emulsion destabilization, recrystallization of sugars and ice of frozen
Kh-v5|/N&^z&d4F`0desserts are often accelerated by fluctuating temperatures.食品伙伴个性空间e}*r+^q#{b
For any specific frozen product, which mode determines its shelf life, depends
%{8XB6qLX8HN0on the product characteristics (raw materials, ingredients, formulation), pre-freezing食品伙伴个性空间Om Mm%m&R
treatment, freezing process, packaging film and processes, and of course storage食品伙伴个性空间aQuWL Av$E(Z
conditions. All of the quality deterioration and potential hazards are usually
1r'_"M)G[#t(k*]0exaggerated or complicated by a fluctuating time-temperature environment (e.g.
S)U)TW'|0freeze/thaw cycle) during storage. On the other hand, the shelf life of a frozen food食品伙伴个性空间6^X4U([3Dd
can be extended through ingredient selection, process modification and change of
(U,a}L}!G+_|0package or storage conditions, as discussed in Section 3 of this book.
lM#E @av&Z BQ0This chapter will focus on shelf life testing of frozen foods for product
A/hb~ B'pSZ0development and market practices. Shelf life testing consists basically of selecting the
?{7urF/[+i0quality characteristics which deteriorate most rapidly in time and the mathematical食品伙伴个性空间4j(_^R&n"?
modeling of the change. Table 19.1 can be used as a reference for the selection of
'{2wS2rU.Q| k+@0quality characteristics, which depends on the specific product and usually requires食品伙伴个性空间1E6`;S6[(^|0PS
professional judgment. Mathematical modeling of quality deterioration will be
2IxS7P!I,j0discussed next.
9u!|X.p;t ua J03食品伙伴个性空间;Z rI;`*S*y
Table 19.1 Deterioration modes of frozen foods
jX@q/\Lr(e'w0Frozen Foods Deterioration Modes
,G#o7zo:?7U^0Frozen meats, poultry and seafood Rancidity食品伙伴个性空间6G%E"AD:R
Toughening (protein denaturation)
5X;LC$w,_[0Discoloration
5xY7e#V1c0Desiccation (freezer burn)食品伙伴个性空间 im~w4ZXV+H*U,jX?
Frozen fruits and vegetables Loss of nutrients (vitamins)
7d#i$B'GE Xk0Loss of texture (temperature abuse)食品伙伴个性空间Ek1Q3Y3SV9[8J4[1B
Loss of flavor (lipoxygenase, peroxidase)
Cc m,N1F#By0Loss of tissue moisture (forming package ice)食品伙伴个性空间^1ZG O q~vk;w
Discoloration食品伙伴个性空间DM&zE)d:?]4o'k?
Frozen concentrated juices Loss of nutrients (vitamins)食品伙伴个性空间[`h\!i@
Loss of flavor食品伙伴个性空间\g J!l(|.Z
Loss of cloudiness
q`H(t(BE-i:Y0Discoloration食品伙伴个性空间:H?3AY*r:P2oCO
Yeast growth (upon temperature abuse)食品伙伴个性空间s#mCC%? u |jk
Frozen dairy products
X7J\e0c&SE f0(ice cream, yogurt, etc.)食品伙伴个性空间:s+i6WJ e1A5l
Iciness (recrystallization of ice crystals)食品伙伴个性空间 i.Ur"^g]
Sandiness (lactose crystallization)食品伙伴个性空间VX7jF(d{/Z
Loss of flavor食品伙伴个性空间Z$u-b7\G ^:R
Disruption of emulsion system
m l:R?*f8H[r2`0Frozen convenience foods Rancidity in meat portions
9s*qm KDCh}0Weeping and curdling of sauces
Og.k Z'P0RQh0Loss of flavor食品伙伴个性空间 _|+x M$X6N]$[
Discoloration
O+ax9A)k"u0Package ice食品伙伴个性空间!hb9C6h$u)y
Frozen bakery products (raw dough,
.`:MN;bDUS&B:Fg0bread, croissants)食品伙伴个性空间2|o*o8\;?xWA
Burst can (upon temperature abuse) (dough)食品伙伴个性空间 Q:zHe9r
Loss of fermentation capability (dough)
.V M#Vr.H*G0Staling (becoming leathery)
6])j1u yd7j'dTmn/{&z0Loss of fresh aroma食品伙伴个性空间;e NJ phd:|$B.U
19.2 Modeling of quality deterioration食品伙伴个性空间"A&au\Fxw
19.2.1 Basic equation食品伙伴个性空间2]D*`F%yL'[%D
A frozen food starts to degrade once it is produced (Figure 19.1). The rate and食品伙伴个性空间qsRLw*TI5\T.@
the degree of degradation depends on both the composition and the environmental
]:S&}qo"Qr)iJO0conditions during storage and distribution. In general, the loss of food quality or shelf
5H*S:nh+D(d.oO$B7{'Tj0life is evaluated by measuring a characteristic quality index, "A". The change of quality食品伙伴个性空间mHL7}X"p!s[9p'Bg
index A with time (dA/dt) can usually be represented by the following kinetic equation:
'zQ/G+a ]h0I0- dA/dt = k An (19.1)食品伙伴个性空间$h#]/W,v!@ b2y
where k is called a rate constant depending on temperature, product and packaging食品伙伴个性空间gG-O;C'p(x3Oe
characteristics; n is a power factor called reaction order which defines whether the rate
MEH2fm4`y/t$A04食品伙伴个性空间 r3Q(l ob6Ex:Mt
of change is dependent on the amount of A present. If environmental factors are held食品伙伴个性空间]XH)hcB'q@Pl2C
constant, n also determines the shape of deterioration curve.
be1nRiP:GP0Ao食品伙伴个性空间0U\a;W2C!Y
A a
'R&ev(C1z1gqP3u \k,~0b
8XPu \L9a O!P0c
X+PZ rR ld-t8A0t食品伙伴个性空间~ {0XM.};t} V
d
UA@)G J0e
Z ^F:m0CO0Figure 19.1 Quality deterioration curves: a) linear; b) exponential;
ZJ ]1WP-v`5gp0c) hyperbolic; d) quadratic; e) complex.
8bK G%YQz019.2.2 Zero and first order kinetics
Y VqV4q vH q`0Equation 19.1 can also be written as:
!V#ee\9LC_}hW:Q0f(A) = k t (19.2)
1~BG6D,H\Q,R}:Y0where f(A) is the quality function, k and t are the same as above. The form of f(A)
"{;{"b }+@k#^0depends on the value of n. When n is equal to zero it is called zero order reaction
%{\&zP)JL3YG0kinetics, which implies that the rate of loss of quality is constant under constant食品伙伴个性空间9F`m{tP
environmental conditions (curve (a) in Fig. 19.1). If n is equal to one it is called first
nD9zav~0order reaction kinetics, which results in an exponential decrease in rate of loss as食品伙伴个性空间Wq)n){EFx
quality decreases (curve (b) in Fig. 19.1, which becomes a straight line if plotted on a
/^9`6Jl)x+}^(e}0semi-log plot). These quality functions can be expressed as follows:
d%^!A7b$E0f(A) = Ao - A = kzt zero order (19.3a)
2a!r#e8e%j.x2nN${n0f(A) = ln Ao - ln A = kft first order (19.3b)
!H4uq ^ p_#y0nG05
]V+g\6D~)HgR0where Ao is the initial quality value. If Ae corresponds to the quality value at the end of
CbUc5@ C ZR0shelf life, the shelf life (q) of the food is inversely proportional to the rate食品伙伴个性空间.Fc%q`5fW)X1a-K)D
constant:食品伙伴个性空间&kj8k9Y*K ?:g:b
q = (Ao - Ae) / kz zero order (19.4a)
5^4[C [? h9QT0q = ln (Ao/Ae) / kf first order (19.4b)
v4iR0].I+E0It should be noted that most chemical reactions leading to quality loss in frozen
Yd?#n0l0food systems are much more complex. However, the reaction kinetics can be食品伙伴个性空间TrM7^];JPu%_H*C
simplified into either pseudo-zero order or pseudo-first order kinetics. In the case of
7K?j)[:x0complex reaction kinetics with respect to reactants, an intermediate or a final product
J4R5}#l@BF0Z e0(e.g. peroxides or hexanal in lipid oxidation ) could be used as a quality index. There
7H`9n+n*y0are few cases where neither zero nor first order kinetics apply. Curve (c) in Fig. 19.1食品伙伴个性空间)f/h[:b Ce
shows the degradation curve for a 2nd order reaction (with single reactant), which also
)H9Wf m P6_ ~ S%m0shows a straight on a semi-log paper. A fractional order should be used to describe食品伙伴个性空间p5O"VO|a
the curve (d) in Fig. 19.1.食品伙伴个性空间,x)L'K @*eN
Sometimes, there is an induction period or lag time before the quality
Z{"Ujz/B0deterioration begins (e.g. browning pigment formation in the Maillard reaction or a食品伙伴个性空间H PChR
microbial growth lag phase, as shown in curve (e) in Fig. 19.1. The length of the lag食品伙伴个性空间 _?+w*pM^x1X
depends on many factors, but temperature is a predominant factor. Given this,
8Q7W+\}%V0modeling of both the induction or lag period and deterioration phase are necessary for食品伙伴个性空间 md5L Uf
accurate prediction of quality loss or shelf life remaining. An example of such work has
9AE$}TK EG$Y0been demonstrated by Fu et al. (1991) for the growth of bacteria in milk.食品伙伴个性空间"[+DZk]'jPkM|
In certain circumstances (e.g. A represents a sensory hedonic score), a nonkinetic食品伙伴个性空间:?!v#rX4Tdkyx-v
approach, e.g. a statistical data fitting technique can also be used to describe食品伙伴个性空间h ~5CV'|H&xM`D
the deterioration curves. Varsanyi and Somogyi (1983) found that the change in
(y8b*E.J,L6Q`ay0quality characteristics as a function of time could be approximately described with
3k D[i |7U M;r*K'd;T0linear, quadratic and hyperbolic functions and that storage temperature and packing
y'O6f A t1L8cJ0conditions affected the shape of the deterioration curves. However, the parameters
P0mp@PP6Nb4gH0determined by data fitting are difficult to use for prediction under variable storage食品伙伴个性空间iQ8z T)_;T`
conditions except for the linear curve.
;S3fQt'@ y"T'v019.2.3 Temperature dependence of deterioration rate食品伙伴个性空间7J'O3@Rot
19.2.3.1 Arrhenius kinetics食品伙伴个性空间0A qp3{v e*F
Once a frozen product is made and packaged and starts its journey from the食品伙伴个性空间L*eNet7W
manufacturer's plant to warehouse, distribution center, retail store and finally食品伙伴个性空间6u{7y[}o$y-d
6食品伙伴个性空间%],f"s:HiO1Jq-o
consumer's freezer, the rate of quality loss is primarily temperature dependent
0_S2F D,H%E0(Zaritzky, 1982). The Arrhenius relationship is often used to describe the temperature食品伙伴个性空间7b/IM"~Fg o~S|
dependence of deterioration rate where for either zero or first order:食品伙伴个性空间8W7[@xG+up)N
k = ko exp (-Ea/RT) (19.5a)食品伙伴个性空间y7X ^mv}k!}
or ln k = ln ko - Ea/(RT) (19.5b)食品伙伴个性空间%wqLG*C g
where ko is a pre-exponential factor; Ea is an activation energy in cal/mol; R is the gas
uQ;P#g^*B(tZ0?/i0constant in cal/mol K and equal to 1.986; T is an absolute temperature in K (273 + °C).食品伙伴个性空间 ?2Hg)`+B |J i(Iu
Thus, a plot of the rate constant on semi-log paper as a function of reciprocal absolute食品伙伴个性空间-cl!S1_)n'w
temperature (1/T) gives a straight line as shown as Fig. 19.2. The activation energy is食品伙伴个性空间:U q&Q#z[(U#s2k*u4e
determined from the slope of the line (divided by the gas constant R). A steeper slope
)s TrA'U%r0means the reaction is more temperature sensitive, i.e., a small change in T produces食品伙伴个性空间4z%Yy9[+t#x)|
are large change in rate.食品伙伴个性空间P3t}$c~vGf.sX
Figure 19.2 Arrhenius plot食品伙伴个性空间Jf7EdU"i!ja
ln k
,xI3l _*DE.S]3qh01/T
3G ? _ duIE+Z0slope = -Ea/R食品伙伴个性空间1I,A_C4q jj
Thus, by studying a deterioration process and measuring the rate of loss at two
.w0vz"BM K!E~-vj0or three temperatures (higher than storage temperature), one could then extrapolate食品伙伴个性空间5p.E9[4M!K(Ig
on an Arrhenius plot with a straight line to predict the deterioration rate at the desired食品伙伴个性空间)~;{x@X8n8E e-N N
storage temperature. This is the basis for accelerated shelf life testing (ASLT), which
9s xCi5Y0will be discussed later. One should note however that in some cases a straight line食品伙伴个性空间(~[P*o*T|T \
will not ensue for a variety of reasons, especially if a phase change occurs (Labuza食品伙伴个性空间#l7jPUW*bo$f lW
7食品伙伴个性空间a*F&{sO)Z
and Riboh, 1982). Thus for frozen foods, extrapolation from temperatures above 0¥C食品伙伴个性空间N&h J5`^uj
are meaningless for shelf life prediction.
t+^+l,wB @W!iO019.2.3.2 WLF kinetics食品伙伴个性空间6P4UXL3D?!u
Besides the Arrhenius equation, another popular equation at least in the more recent食品伙伴个性空间r7IZ m._9? }2F8U
food literature, is the Williams Landau Ferry (WLF) model (Williams et al., 1955). Its
n7_tgL6^ S"{0original form was based on the variation of the viscosity in the temperature range
&og0D9deE7L` L0above Tg as addressed in Chapter 3. When the rate constant at Tg' is substituted for Tg
#m^ R['?DB3M)drP0(Tg' is the Tg of a maximally freeze-concentrated system), the WLF model can be
;] fS~`D0written as follows:
?D] C)eK0log (kT/kg) = C1(T-Tg')/[(C2+(T-Tg')] (19.6a)
Za(d3~V5P5m4^0or [log (kT/kg)]-1 = (C2/C1)/(T-Tg') + 1/C1 (19.6b)食品伙伴个性空间g2n+K*q-r},_
where C1 and C2 are constants. Thus a plot of [log (kT/kg)]-1 vs. (T-Tg)-1 will be a食品伙伴个性空间RCdLg$|C FTx
straight line with the slope equal to C2/C1 and the intercept equal to 1/C1. As can be
6e1qk ],y^qS'c[,i0seen this is a two parameter temperature dependent model as is the Arrhenius食品伙伴个性空间 vfhP/|
equation.
}J'[9^_,{!`:K$z0Frozen foods stored below Tg' are stable to ice recrystallization and other食品伙伴个性空间R'd{6\EQ#n4H
physical changes. Levine and Slade (1988) postulated that stability is related to the
w2S;j f"Vk _U gW0temperature difference between storage temperature and Tg'. This cryostabilization of
6T+z"LhR^i6gjl#q0foods assumes stability below Tg' and rapid decrease of stability above Tg' according食品伙伴个性空间'E,S WU9ay;`[H6aW!Z
to the WLF relationship, exhibiting an increase in reaction rate, much higher than食品伙伴个性空间5F!_F)Y$Vc
expected from the Arrhenius kinetics. However, this may not be true since the rate of食品伙伴个性空间#I!L$U~0V#J'c B
chemical reactions can be expected to be influenced by temperature increase in a
p"j7i)fxH0complex way: (i) an increase of the rate constant, resulting from both the viscosity
$@puSu0decrease and the increased molecular mobility (Fennema 1996); (ii) a decrease of the
#FL \8i-uWI]0reaction rate as a consequence of the increasing dilution of the reactants Roos et al.
]/h.S%C!{4v0(1996). For these reasons, it seems that the WLF model over predicts the temperature食品伙伴个性空间^+VH;T+Y il
effect of rate constant (Simatos et al., 1989). As noted by Nelson and Labuza (1994),食品伙伴个性空间5]Ry-Fq1HO
because of the small temperature range over which foods are stored, e.g., about D30°C食品伙伴个性空间&i hF{_h y0R
for dry foods and D20°C for frozen foods, both the Arrhenius and the WLF model give
&Mf8^-@Z0good correlations as long as one does not use the universal coefficients suggested by食品伙伴个性空间\]%x$Om hzq-M
Slade and Levine (1991). In fact as shown by Nelson and Labuza (1994), their use of
l*C{d1Z0the Lim and Reid (1991) data for enzymatic activity in the frozen state as shown in 19.3
/[l"M4O&pMR0is not proof that the Arrhenius relationship does not apply, WLF was assumed because食品伙伴个性空间S3a/_ M,l:p(K {
the rate was negligible below -10°C which was the measured Tg. But as seen in食品伙伴个性空间8l*Xij0Y^
8
\E9e6DF+NO`0Figure 19.3b if the data is plotted as Arrhenius plot an r2 of 0.999 ensues. The
w4f,OSq+s\O`/f{0challenge in applying the WLF model for stability or shelf life prediction is that (1) Tg is
Z$PJyvZ0not known; (2) Tg is difficult to determine; and (3) the universal coefficients of Levine食品伙伴个性空间)X4NZql:sr
and Slade (1986) are not applicable.
id&Lo6K K*[f:c00 50 100 150 200 250
u4x^\6r?)B,@ h00
Lh] Q]a6A01食品伙伴个性空间|ozR!eu GP
2食品伙伴个性空间d%DM3VO"_$J
3食品伙伴个性空间5[/g4`V:f9b'zo F
4食品伙伴个性空间M8y8Z,B'rA
5食品伙伴个性空间0?!~L m/Yf2\t(K
-3.5
-@:x8H5k8?AE m*Gz0-5.5食品伙伴个性空间e*lXw`
-8.5
)t7c"p1E5K U0-13食品伙伴个性空间1Kkv)z/}1ArX
-19
,z\W+\HAJ0Time (hours)
WIpR'tM^["[0Relative absorbance食品伙伴个性空间V@/hrGF.[
Temperature (°C)食品伙伴个性空间z"k}bIh },U
0.0037 0.0038 0.0039食品伙伴个性空间l\)W(r^/gv
-4
Bec;up5qf0-3食品伙伴个性空间a}.d!o-U%R7o
-2
:^9f l&?-L0-1
/?}2S$h4^AP)z7Q00
'B*c9@w+GMg01/T (K-1)食品伙伴个性空间-c&PQh"^_\&wH
ln(k)
SXHfdp0y = 79.497 - 2.1621E+4x R2 = 0.999
"q*[U pGz1\i5v0Figure 19.3 Hydrolysis of maltodextrin in the frozen state (Lim and Reid; 1991)食品伙伴个性空间+QL2|#z([ nm+E|
a. Rate as a function of temperature (Note Tg is -10 ¡C)
l1j8_[.}Rf tc0b. Arrhenius plot食品伙伴个性空间cl7E"R3R g-O0wF?
19.2.3.4 Shelf life model
Y&NTruL"T0Most published data related to quality deterioration do not give rates or rate constants
,Kl Z6Zp1}(P:bs)|0but rather are in the form of an overall shelf life (end-point analysis) as a function of食品伙伴个性空间8IF4Iw g1poO
storage temperature. Since the temperature range used is usually quite narrow, the食品伙伴个性空间:N'i/t.GWqR$C4S
following exponential relationship exists between shelf life and storage temperature:
'nez*FJ,z4g:xV5e,g0q = exp(-bT+c) (19.7a)食品伙伴个性空间l8E IjDh*Zg/a l
or ln q = -bT+c (19.7b)
lq;IgX`(OC0where q is shelf life at temperature T in °C, b is the slope of the semilog plot of q vs T
%wY:W$s|3K0and c is the intercept or reference temperature as shown as Fig. 19.4. Practically, this食品伙伴个性空间.NWl0]pR0Yh-w
is used frequently for shelf life determination and prediction due to its simplicity and食品伙伴个性空间(k!f%bO8K z
straightforwardness.食品伙伴个性空间4O~ ~ Ta/T;d+wH1v&D
9食品伙伴个性空间cG g_8F&W*M
Figure 19.4 Shelf life plot食品伙伴个性空间P `!et:l
ln q
"^iQ ](F0T食品伙伴个性空间t Dkk S
19.2.3.4 Q10 or q10
'o%s3pb,k3p0T*W @0The Q10 approach is also often used for estimation of the temperature acceleration of食品伙伴个性空间2\D E]_)k%alL
shelf life, which is defined as :
G xr x*xWQ+N.c |0Q10 = rate @ T1+10 °C / rate @ T1 (19.8a)食品伙伴个性空间0g)kZ|Hm7r
Q10 = shelf life @T1 / shelf life @T1+10 °C (19.8b)食品伙伴个性空间.i.f*jy5`oR \
Q10 = (q10)1.8 (19.8c)食品伙伴个性空间 w S$Cq'^ w+}rQh5a5o
where T1 is temperature in °C. If the temperature unit is in °F, then the term q10 is食品伙伴个性空间+tkf.lHR4T.p"s@*]
used, which in fact is more often used than Q10 in the frozen food literature.食品伙伴个性空间aiL&U9o%f6|k(\-~C
The magnitude of Q10 depends on the food system, the temperature and the
.s(ru\*J9m0absolute range. Q10 values from 2 up to 20 have been found for frozen foods (Labuza,食品伙伴个性空间:pU6F(L7`R o2bT1b
1982) Labuza and Schmidl, 1985. Q10 can be shown to be related to the Arrhenius
6t1RWw/V8M0equation and the shelf life model through the following expression:
}L?|'f6l0Q10 = exp [10 Ea/(R T (T+10)] (19.9a)
DOL#q?cLC0Q10 = exp (10 b) (19.9b)
Gawj'F2O0Thus Q10 is not constant but depends on Ea and the absolute temperature T.食品伙伴个性空间f`B9I+M
Some data gleaned from July (1989) and Labuza (1982) is shown in Table 19.2.食品伙伴个性空间Fr#\!Of*Fy/|
10食品伙伴个性空间i(\_R"\8`(N
Table 19.2
x,`&SoL zv_0Estimate of the Q
-{,s6PH$wt ]-em010食品伙伴个性空间a5?5R|)E-X j!\
for shelf life of selected frozen foods食品伙伴个性空间_B ~.Z ~8H?#x
Days of HQL
Ej]8p$X \uu+a'R0I te m - 10°C - 20°C Q 1 0食品伙伴个性空间,OU^Q.n
pork sausage 20 120 4
O&na9b)L4S0pork 50 400 8
+X\x6eVH]a0beef 60 200 3.3
!cMA/`%V3Qo0ground hamburger 250 800 3.2食品伙伴个性空间hq[v'UC/Bk
fried hamburger 35 250 7食品伙伴个性空间[}e9o(Sn$Cd,B5Vb
raw poultry 200 700 3.5食品伙伴个性空间.y{0Oh,I)|er7HQJ
fried poultry 25 700 3.2食品伙伴个性空间4YV*a3]Q/}X0Y)v\
fatty fish 7 60 9食品伙伴个性空间QNt#a;N s ^-p%?g7g
19.2.3.5 Other models食品伙伴个性空间Ys'b?h I!o @5O
The following models have also been proposed to describe the temperature
l-x$B9W-Q&tj0dependence of the rate constant (Kwolek and Bookwalter, 1971) for frozen systems:食品伙伴个性空间 mj"| Ooe ~4xHk
kT = a + b T (19.10a)
0j[h9N/hj8D0kT = a Tb (19.10b)食品伙伴个性空间5r;h3]`0r+` zE |Z
kT = a / (b - T) (19.10c)
|v#ru T0where a, and b are constants. In most cases, Equation 19.10c fits data better.食品伙伴个性空间-S6J9t9t"o-L]3o?(]
However, all these have very limited practical application.食品伙伴个性空间 a ])U]q Q([]
19.2.4 Time-temperature tolerance
DO)J1m*Y0Frozen foods are often exposed to a variable temperature environment, e.g. during
G.NWLs!\0distribution or due to freezing/defrosting cycle in retail or home freezers. In general, the
L:KfN[1L0value of the quality function, f(A), at time t under changing environmental conditions食品伙伴个性空间S6a)M(J$d
can be estimated from:食品伙伴个性空间[t#t?!^4uZ~
f(A) = ò k[T(t)] dt (19.11)
h$|5d rT%^Od0where T(t) is the temperature as a function of time. The form of f(A) depends on the食品伙伴个性空间Z iBk0lwX
reaction order as discussed previously. If an effective temperature, Teff, is defined as食品伙伴个性空间xs:_&\'Eqw'u5X
11食品伙伴个性空间4NX2b!P MU!N
that constant temperature exposure which causes the same quality change as the食品伙伴个性空间r4BR#I ]Y'hZd l,G
variable temperature condition, as proposed by Schwimmer et al. (1955), then食品伙伴个性空间,qt@0BW5f,X;T5|Li
f(A) = keff t (19.12)
nmgzZ,NlU:q0The rate constant at that defined temperature is termed the effective rate constant, i.e.食品伙伴个性空间*q!l.Qi\5EUZ$c
keff. To estimate the quality change under variable temperature conditions, one食品伙伴个性空间9n;~#pXsl[]8?
needs to either solve for f(A) numerically or know the value of Teff or keff that
*L5}@C'iHV0corresponds to the variable conditions.食品伙伴个性空间;].^5S9y2D_
The numerical approach for a randomly variable temperature history is
1j(\'a_)DO)R0essentially the same as the Time/Temperature/Tolerance (TTT) approach initiated by
T)U(iO XOB0Van Arsdel et al. (1969) and derived empirically in the 1960's for the prediction of shelf
"{ u&vcb5e {aKf0life of frozen foods (July, 1984). It is assumed that the temperature history of the
U9^v]9a1[,_+sY)F0product is known. Thus the fraction of shelf life consumed, fcon, was calculated as the食品伙伴个性空间/H mP2sw{ I jXw
sum of the times at each temperature interval, ti, divided by the shelf life at that
'F2M%e)x;CL2x~}0temperature, qi:
g:BG&S'wA9m0fcon = S (ti / qi) (19.13)
+lugo8h.yv0Thus the remaining shelf life at a reference temperature is equivalent to (1-fcon)*q.
C%| J)d J0Equation 19.13 assumes that the rule of additivity is valid for frozen foods (July,食品伙伴个性空间~+w IfvMl$l
1984), which means that the loss of remaining storage life or quality can be calculated
N4E0\#_9Qe)e6N0from knowledge of the prior time-temperature episodes the product has been exposed
4?K:s9sO/{3t\I0to. This also implies that the prior sequence of the time-temperature episodes is of no食品伙伴个性空间RX6B`-j%WL'sk%h
importance except to calculate the amount of quality remaining up to that time, i.e.食品伙伴个性空间 LdaXZP\ w2d
there is no history effect. If the rule of additivity is valid with reasonable accuracy, the食品伙伴个性空间cv#` tC+a9|
use of time-temperature integrators (TTI) should provide reliable results with respect to食品伙伴个性空间:{3vt N1E8P si4Uc5S
prediction of shelf life remaining, which will be discussed later.食品伙伴个性空间 qA8WP'i!` xO
However, there are some cases where the total effect of various temperature
Y$e7]$z{ c5t0experiences may not be independent of the order in which they occur or of the nature
%rF%^d8S\5gK,V0of temperature history. For example, widely fluctuating temperatures may cause食品伙伴个性空间g5NE6d YN;d"XIG
freezer burn or in-package desiccation, which is not additive (July, 1984). Where the食品伙伴个性空间!Kfce?Q-OU
colloidal nature of a product is affected, the effect of time-temperature history may not食品伙伴个性空间s:_n!Su
be additive either, especially with a freeze/thaw cycles. This is also true when growth食品伙伴个性空间C$EyWs
of microorganisms occurs (Fu et al., 1991). Certain chemical reactions, enzymatic as食品伙伴个性空间ck5@/\)Yf1q
well as nonenzymatic, could even proceed more rapidly at temperatures below
L-nP pCP012
y(W+QEf"Eg0freezing. This is called a negative effect of temperature (Singh and Wang, 1977),
9e$Od^;d9t2w0which could be caused by one or more of the following factors: (1) a freeze食品伙伴个性空间z'H9x,raM9t
concentration effect; (2) the catalytic effect of ice crystals; (3) a greater mobility of
,Nqx;v(l6w0protons in ice than in water; (4) a change in pH, up or down with freezing; (5) a
:s VYz'f%_(q as0favorable orientation of reactants in the partially frozen state; (6) a salting in or out of食品伙伴个性空间,RP5w#@#Z EL
proteins; (7) decrease in dielectric constant; and (8) the development of antioxidants at
W;T1SM$_0higher temperatures. As has been shown by Fennema (1975), the freeze食品伙伴个性空间%`-UC5_md o v
concentration effect can cause rates of chemical reactions to increase dramatically just
T ztfZU0below the freezing point (Figure 19.5), e.g. ascorbic acid loss at -3°C can be faster食品伙伴个性空间'yoyE*R'ehI K!]l }p
than at higher temperatures this one should not use data in the -4°C to 0°C range or
kK Ol.L'R'^0above as part of an accelerated shelf life test to predict rates at lower temperatures.食品伙伴个性空间6i ]_7t t%\2^*U
Fennema (1975), showed that the time to 50% loss of vitamin C in broccoli was 44
{{Iy.M0days at -5°C, 120 days at -2°C and 162 days at +2°C. This concentration effect is
GYW6kR:k RU0evident in the shelf life plot of frozen strawberries as shown in Fig. 19.6 using the data
Mq%M m"xY)L6E0of Guadagni (1968). If the data collected only at 25 and 30°F (-3.9°C and -1.1°C) are食品伙伴个性空间1o-?5zIQDo(M
used, the predicted shelf life at 0°F (-17.8°C) is over 27 years, if data are collected at
:^p6c{&T;t^0only 20 and 25°F (-6.7 and 3.9°C), the shelf life predicted at 0°F is 40 days while data
6X"Y)Qv7u$P{"Si0below 20¥F extrapolated to the true expected shelf life is about 280 days.食品伙伴个性空间_,Q*u8C6e ] {
Figure 19.5 Rate of chemical reaction as a function of temperature食品伙伴个性空间*O8lp {Zq-J z&k d } ~ u
above and below the freezing point of a food.食品伙伴个性空间5g1q&Q*k.W&vB9rk{
13
;E#gB.] _4Mm(jQV0Figure 19.6. Shelf life plot of frozen strawberries showing the
R,sm1J+^Wb2Kn0influence of the freeze concentration effect just below the freezing食品伙伴个性空间:?bs|4rUYA4hd
point on prediction of shelf life at 0¡F . Data from Guadagni (1968).
~*x5k:v r)s0Each line represents a regression through a different selected set of
9dn%kY1a1jh&F@~#e0temperatures.
a0S#zP3K4g9Wi0The response ratio of the food to changes in environmental temperature (RT) is食品伙伴个性空间{].f(@)W*m(Zy
dependent on the fluctuating temperature conditions as well as the heat transfer食品伙伴个性空间 }D lJ*rG;\2`-Jd
properties of the food as well as the package (Cairnes and Gordon, 1976; Dagerskog,
YSF;[X-PCL01974). In the analysis of food shelf life, an inherent assumption is made that the food
)m%Sfd#PvW0w5v0is responding instantaneously to the environmental temperature changes, i.e., RT = 1.
3~*aVUc$P#|0This may be acceptable if a surface deterioration process is the deterministic factor for
;[ qs \C0shelf life, e.g. mold growth in some foods. Freeze-defrost cycles generally can be食品伙伴个性空间8FP9u}IvK
considered as sinusoidal oscillations. The amplitude of the effect is reduced inside the食品伙伴个性空间eTQ0[i[G
package by some factor thus RT. < 1. It can be expected that the shorter the period of
JT7c3Q6OJM'xf0the ambient variation the smaller the RT, and hence the smaller the amplitude of the食品伙伴个性空间7bZ1l Vt&?/P
cyclic temperature variation in the package. Zuritz and Sastry (1986) also studied the
/ZL/c8vE u*Iu4x0effect of packaging materials on temperature fluctuations for frozen ice cream and
W~6Pd3AVaY0found that packaging materials coupled with a layer of stagnant air were effective食品伙伴个性空间DZ;I h/uV9z j V
barriers against thermal fluctuations.食品伙伴个性空间~)yk I*rye2`
19.2.5 Hazard function
LgI*LMa;e014食品伙伴个性空间L_Azi7s"K4G
After the product is produced, it may fail at any point in time in accordance with its life
)gYh*H0NKo ~0distribution (Nelson, 1972). The hazard function h(t) of a distribution is defined for t ³ 0
d U!eY hrZ0by:
h)rqtf$?*C0h(t) = f(t)/[1-F(t)] (19.14)食品伙伴个性空间aB$E E%RO!@
where f(t) is a probability density function and F(t) is a cumulative distribution function.食品伙伴个性空间*}g9F2nc:F o
The h(t) is the conditional probability of failure at time t, given that failure has not食品伙伴个性空间gS(V"DK2R
occurred before ..
s Fn\W+L a s0The behavīor of a hazard function for studying the shelf life of food products can食品伙伴个性空间$R)V4E i'Fg
be easily understood by examining the "bathtub" shaped curve in Fig. 19.7. Note that食品伙伴个性空间(rE;|6r8F2K)b
at time to, a frozen food product begins its journey to many distribution outlets for
s \#{`.R `"XK1q;h0consumption. During the time between to and t1, early failures may occur owing to a食品伙伴个性空间.YM0Ui|~
failure in the process itself, faulty packaging, extreme initial product abuse, and many
Q{5W&]+cRJ9Gd0~k0other environmental stresses to which the product is subjected. Early failure should not食品伙伴个性空间M+qSvG0e
be taken as a true failure relative to the shelf life of the product unless it represents the
:v(MIO,TA2N:^0normal condition. From t1 to t2 one can expect, barring chance major temperature食品伙伴个性空间N0L4]m j7H _
fluctuations, no failures. This interval represents the true period of the product's
gov @w/[$A`0stability. The failure rate is almost constant and small during this time. The hazard or食品伙伴个性空间} ikQ{$TTyK
failure rate increases from time t2 to the termination point t3, owing to the true
#ds+A/ya_0deteriorative changes occurring within the product. The concept of hazard function is食品伙伴个性空间h~3?C0Z Gp
important in the analysis and interpretation of the failure times of a product.
DDP@3j'tM0Time食品伙伴个性空间%eo$b5\'{qa0JH@
to t1 t2 t3
:B9T-| t@!z*t0Early
B"BdRH0failure
9HE+e rt0B!M[P0Period of product stability食品伙伴个性空间m.R.H"|U^
Failure due to
xFX4yV h0product
[7GNQM2i-cK0deterioration
b+trUzJ1_$z.V(fB0Figure 19.7 Failure rate as a function of time食品伙伴个性空间DPcp%n
15
+R|{3fb,F~2H+g0A fundamental assumption underlying statistical analysis of shelf life testing is食品伙伴个性空间.d vc Z!sMaz
that the shelf life distribution of a food product belongs to a family of probability
Y:Q In.`x&^@0distributions and that observations are statistically independent. Parameters of a shelf
hC'[-O"l.H0life distribution are estimated by use of shelf life testing experimental data. Once the
o8G;jqPW){0parameters of a shelf life model have been estimated, it can be used to predict the
1gEnKh:k P%H%nx0probabilities of various events, such as future failures (Nelson, 1972). Five statistical
A3N9J~5jU[/d,}0models, normal, log normal, exponential, Weibull and extreme-value distributions
5N0y-kvv4qG0were tested for a few food products (Gacula and Kubala, 1975; Labuza and Schmidl,
]X)^@ p4S01988) and it was found that the Weibull distribution fits best, which will be食品伙伴个性空间&[E,Ioo6hQ
demonstrated later.食品伙伴个性空间$BjQ FJ`6`0g
19.3 Shelf life testing — overall aspects食品伙伴个性空间J.Jdy;^
19.3.1 Purpose食品伙伴个性空间.dw,oqbP4Gx p3DT*j
In the development of any new food product including reformulating, change of
/`H"NF#iSH0packaging or storage/distribution condition (to penetrate into a new market), one食品伙伴个性空间k~G*q,?Q"f
important aspect is the knowledge of shelf life. The shelf life of a food product is vital to食品伙伴个性空间5s1IMM:U$Ya m
its success in the marketplace. This life must at least exceed the minimum distribution
E#qg#o(K&m0K:C'{0time required from the processor to the consumer. Shelf life testing can assess
o\aOf0Wn6~0problems that the product has in the development stage, following a "fail small fail
.w lY)aGq0early" philosophy, thereby eliminating large disasters later. Marketing/brand managers食品伙伴个性空间2QF}0Ho
also need reliable shelf life data to position the products and to establish the brand.
R~sM-k{0Periodic determination of shelf life help to provide assurance that the product remains
3@9}8?+X Y]0consistent over time with respect to quality.
.z-FztC-x_1fT0Different shelf life testing strategies are necessary at different stages, as食品伙伴个性空间_~5P2q tMx#H
illustrated in Fig. 19.8. If the objective is to identify whether pathogens and spoilage
$E~q.X&VV3I){0microbes will grow in the case of temperature abuse, then a challenge study is
-[+x Cn7G0necessary. If the objective is to quickly estimate the approximate shelf life of the食品伙伴个性空间P,P#@[ @d r7p6Pv
product then an ASLT can be used, as long as the proper temperature range is食品伙伴个性空间2T6l4G$xY g`(PQTq
chosen. A confirmatory shelf life test may be conducted at the last stage with食品伙伴个性空间j%?gqx O
simulated distribution chain conditions, although in today’s R & D environment, this食品伙伴个性空间i6P-dH6?v k3u]
may be skipped.
I hd/Q!PX016
_J$s j8S!`Kq6T0Product concept食品伙伴个性空间_N p#Hl)T@
Prototype development
6]D[*x"C Y0Pilot line testing
|:^#kry)j0Scale-up line trial食品伙伴个性空间hu]j;Vt?z
Full line production食品伙伴个性空间)n5m(ce$zAj#j5h
Marketplace
iM%F0C#g?;L {u0General stability information食品伙伴个性空间 }j-k9Tb4S
Challenge Study食品伙伴个性空间5q^k-{E8{H b;X"IY
Accelerated shelf life testing食品伙伴个性空间p3Q6^0Sn
Confirmatory storage study食品伙伴个性空间&h7vw6H?%m4A7W0p0A
On-going shelf life monitoring食品伙伴个性空间'Uzt(G(j2{(iae5K?
Figure 19.8 Shelf life testing strategy at different product development stages
]Yfa ZyLM019.3.2 Shelf life criteria食品伙伴个性空间g-FJ6aW$e)^e
The criterion for the end of shelf life may be variable depending on the definition of
S1b,MH$Zti&A0product quality grade, so the shelf life of a product may also be variable. The shelf life食品伙伴个性空间'C(R b&D)A
of most perishable and semiperishable foods is almost solely based on sensory
Q:u(a%o v@ F,ydk0quality. For example, fresh meat degrades mainly by bacterial activity and rapid
tHo4B+p `]X0O0chemical oxidations that cause an off-flavor development and loss of color. This is
p0T,G.g9@4|x0readily recognizable by consumers. In contrast, many longer shelf-life foods including食品伙伴个性空间1R1_4`4A,{*q&s
most frozen foods degrade mainly by slow chemical reactions such as loss of
DW.r8a GOL0X.R0nutritional value. For example, the vitamin C content of some frozen fruits and
~ rbJQm0vegetables, may fall below the required standard as listed on the label before sensory
H)uMasEPC0c0quality becomes inadequate.
i$nO7k9n6X+P%^0The criteria for shelf life may also vary depending on the sensitivity of the
5wu,~4@8{0consumer. For consumers, taste, odor, and appearance are the most obvious criteria;
gZ6qv"}/nr8N+M0in academia and in the industry, sensory evaluation correlated with instrumental食品伙伴个性空间(^y$J3pI `0r
measurements of a given quality index (e.g., vitamin C level) are usually conducted. In
Rd7J[Z'g0general, the criteria level corresponding to the end of shelf life of a product depends
k+n/n}\ Y017食品伙伴个性空间a:Ez,C;Bw!I.K)FN
on: (i) any legal requirement, e.g. zero tolerance for botulinum toxin; (ii) consumer
`sob}o$^0preferences or marketing requirements; and (iii) cost. In essence, the end of shelf life
yZ1Z2t#B/p*\0depends on the percentage of consumers a company is willing to displease. If 100%
Y'g#Yii3q8~0acceptance is required then high cost ingredients and absolute control of distribution食品伙伴个性空间9IB a3B/t8EQQ
up to point of consumption is necessary, otherwise there will always be some people食品伙伴个性空间'[K+xxU ] }n
who will get foods beyond shelf life. The aim is to keep this as small as possible.
DE)K:i:CX T0mL019.3.2.1 Just noticeable difference (JND)食品伙伴个性空间n/`+R7|5Ul1q3{
Sensory (organoleptic) examination of foods was a general procedure used by the
5[4HGF7Z$@!S1CW0human race to evaluate wholesomeness of foods long before the discovery of食品伙伴个性空间7t D3O a)~r8Nv Q?3j
microorganisms. Sensory evaluation of foods by scientific methods can be used to食品伙伴个性空间KJ5j%yW tn8P
evaluate such attributes as taste, odor, body, texture, color and appearance. Changes食品伙伴个性空间+KAAW8cZv
in these attributes may be brought out by microbial or non-microbial actions, usually
7M*Xp0b2V7_a0the latter for frozen foods.
0T1@k2e3KDPo0The methods used to evaluate sensory shelf life data include difference testing
v:l9W ~9c[0and hedonic scoring. Difference testing can involve paired comparisons, duo-trio
Ow}+p7CvC0tests, or triangle tests. The paired comparison procedure determines the time when a食品伙伴个性空间h&v9{m7T r(E
measurable difference in quality occurs between two test samples at a certain level of食品伙伴个性空间 Z\4B {,php i6e
probability. When applied to frozen foods, this method is often referred to as the Just
3}2[V/q/MNVQ0Noticeable Difference (JND) test or High Quality Life (HQL) test (July, 1984), which is食品伙伴个性空间9O@"N[t C*t
usually based on flavor changes. Duo-trio testing compares two unknowns to an
zf6Z%E^v5M#e;{0unabused control sample and asks the question of whether either of the unknowns are
5Umb-^E-@0the same as or different from the identified control. Triangle testing determines the one
Y&n1m+GG Uc0different product among three test samples presented randomly to a set of judges (at
A9w!rnsE5V0least 10). Probability plots are used to predict shelf life at a given probability level.食品伙伴个性空间W3k|&\PC P
The difference method can result in finding a difference when none really exists (Type食品伙伴个性空间&?g8`v-F!m
I error), or not finding one when indeed there is a true difference (Type II error).
2J*M|w3tc]Im;_0Labuza and Schmidl (1988) have discussed this topic more thoroughly in relationship
^eu+p.CL8i[ h2~b0to shelf life testing, which is not commonly found in sensory textbooks. Table 19.3食品伙伴个性空间 _eIQX"h0HVu
shows some data from Guadagni (1968) for HQL of frozen foods.食品伙伴个性空间)Jc!|dKVnnS
18
_WDE2^6SdG0Table 19.3食品伙伴个性空间8}I6DV@/@4l
Days of High Quality Life for fruits and vegetable (from Guadagni 1968)
T)`-Ci(q0P roduct T yp e 0 °F 1 0°F 2 0°F食品伙伴个性空间l0{6z2I3A
apples pie filling 360 250 60食品伙伴个性空间&o'RE2_(fz
blueberries pie filling 175 77 18
!P4Ck,o_w9BLlP0cherries pie filling 490 260 60
sl4h"blI0peaches retail syrup 360 45 6食品伙伴个性空间1fC"m%k/f%R^
blackberries bulk, no sugar 630 280 50食品伙伴个性空间 @s @(u-d`._
raspberriesbulk, no sugar 720 315 70食品伙伴个性空间i"K_-JwBR{?eg
retail, syrup 720 110 18
`0MDK$X0} jl#g0strawberries bulk, sugar 630 90 18
X\)H`T_vi0retail 360 60 10
,D;P'H%Y Xk,HK3j/O0green beans retail 296 94 30食品伙伴个性空间b!uJ bl%_}~g.j1[
cauliflower retail 291 61 13食品伙伴个性空间5r8A$D7Y1GN1tx
peas retail 305 90 27
,SOE8l~_ V0spinach retail 187 57 23
"jm7_"t ^0corn retail 720 360
Gd$NC!diu;\ K|0h0corn on cob retail 275 150食品伙伴个性空间UP1^!F6v C3M k
19.3.2.2 Hedonic scoring食品伙伴个性空间3h8Bg(T`D
Hedonic scoring — which indicates acceptance on a numerical scale, e.g. a 1-9 point
yi#XiSOwEc0scale labeled from "dislike extremely" to "like extremely", is typically used for shelf-life食品伙伴个性空间7gX'd_7g fp
evaluation. The test can be designed to not only evaluate the overall acceptance of the
4}!k7@ ^]+a1]V;]&n.hZ0product, but that of specific characteristics such as flavor, texture, appearance,食品伙伴个性空间(`:jl6E h%D$wOX
aftertaste, etc. Trained panels can also use this technique on a line scale, which can
2g7Z v A:F3Y H2E3V5`0be converted to numerical equivalents.
%D w-Tb$B@3L0If the hedonic method is used to evaluate shelf life, one can simply use the
8t!}"zpA0score as quality index A and plot the score vs. storage time, run a linear regression,食品伙伴个性空间N]%_$vNt3lq
and choose the end of shelf life as the time when the progressed value drops below a食品伙伴个性空间:Z'sje~T
pre-set level (Waltzeko and Labuza, 1976; Gacula, 1975). The shelf life determined in
/Ov2qk$?6{/V0this way is called the practical shelf life (PSL) for frozen foods (July, 1984), and is食品伙伴个性空间Py au8}c
longer than the HQL or JND. The use of hedonic rating scales may be of limited use in食品伙伴个性空间;O/e{ H(v,^gq[(L
shelf life testing, yet it is probably the most used method. Many food companies use a食品伙伴个性空间,E TS zj4^nu2A
loss in hedonic score equal to D=0.5 for HQL and D=1.5 for PSL as the end of shelf life食品伙伴个性空间1D{0j.cfz!kXH
19食品伙伴个性空间+v,A ]4Ik4PI9iwGv
(Labuza, 1982). Objective measurements and professional judgment are often
E7G2VY8HZ'[/GX0required to determine the end point. Data in Table 19.4 from an report published by食品伙伴个性空间5C+Y*Bx$T"kY
the former Refrigerated and Frozen Foods Institute (1973) Unfortunately there were no
.vg.JkM0methods given, but the data suggests that the PSL is about 2 to 3 times longer than the
UH)X-JH8hg0HQL value. This in itself suggests that the HQL methods can be used to shorten shelf食品伙伴个性空间l:K#vMP'G^
life testing times.食品伙伴个性空间?#Y#G|,a&N+?
Table 19.4食品伙伴个性空间*D!fNb/U.T?
Relationship between practical shelf life (PSL)食品伙伴个性空间Pe#u }5nJ/c
and High Quality Life for frozen foods.食品伙伴个性空间 zIR3_[8V&I
F rozen Food P SL/HQL Rati o食品伙伴个性空间b e*oCyg,J ZO(^
lean meat 1.9 - 2
G3P^CqP`;]0fatty meat 2.0-2.4
M/v(SV ph!U0lean fish 1.9-2.2食品伙伴个性空间u5w#I,G6?U%m\1~$k
fatty fish 2.4-2.7
8['N#S `z Od)^0precooked foods 2.8-3.0食品伙伴个性空间.]2F[2X-L/E
fruit 2.8-3.1食品伙伴个性空间:F*a/P/q |)P
vegetables 3.1-3.5
A0VS8[4|h^k2V%i^019.3.2.3 Instrumental analysis
"]sn0t+yZ6F Dg0Chemical or instrumental analysis, such as moisture, nutrient loss, free-fatty acids or食品伙伴个性空间kQca.G i5i [
color measurement that closely correlate to sensory attributes, can supplement
!J%W?f5J6M0sensory techniques. They are usually less expensive and less time-consuming than
lW8S}&rE v Y I0sensory approaches. A correlation between a physical or chemical test can increase
mn5PT7^1x0the confidence level of the sensory results. For example, the following constituents or
$@K`!vo/_0properties can be considered for monitoring chemical changes of pizza quality during
#`3J*zlf3H(s0frozen storage: total free fatty acids, specific volatile free fatty acids by HPLC,食品伙伴个性空间X4f*Sw` g
peroxides, oxidative volatiles (e.g., hexanal) by GC, spice volatiles by GC, lysine, color
J)L+XL:rV0(decrease in red color or increase in brown), in addition to sensory evaluation of taste食品伙伴个性空间_Xtcx@4jK4Q
and flavor (Labuza, 1986). Most sensory experts agree that analytical methods should
/K5EU h5o:uI9T6M?0complement the sensory tests. Vice versa, the endpoint determined by objective
+E c%OhxT0measurements should be confirmed by sensory techniques as well.
Lrz K_o%XH020
F#o/V7Z5?x*~,kZYE019.3.2.4 Weibull Hazard analysis
'^%IT6QQkt s\l*p0The Weibull Hazard procedure requires one to first make an estimation of the time to食品伙伴个性空间1A-M.JEc yI#P_F
the end of shelf life. This becomes the initial estimated time limit for the study. The time食品伙伴个性空间:p%HH4Fx4o/i M
limit is then divided into several segments at which points panelists grade the product.食品伙伴个性空间z-d-N#U7S9U
Additional panelists are added at a constant number for each subsequent time period食品伙伴个性空间`2M~g+iw:p
to maximize the number of testers near the end of the test. The panelist is asked to
9]&j _ ~8B@1cv%|0grade the food as good (acceptable) or bad (unacceptable), i.e. no ranking on a
7DWZ W,^2P|:b!A0hedonic score. When the product is identified as unacceptable by 50% of the食品伙伴个性空间Aqpb HCQ
panelists, the number of testers for the next period is increased by the number of failed
t:k^ nh[M,q0samples plus the constant number. The interval between sample times is also食品伙伴个性空间TC$E'n/Zi ~h
shortened as the end of shelf life gets closer. The test ends when no more samples or
9F,H M)y E0panelists are available. The scores are ranked and the cumulative hazard calculated.食品伙伴个性空间9ze8P-\6N'l7l2r C
The critical probability of failure Pc, can then be calculated from the following equation:食品伙伴个性空间0T,NqGGj9w
Pc = 100 (1 - exp(-å(H/100))) (19.15)食品伙伴个性空间/]9L^ z,@Z{,S
where H is the hazard value equal to 100/Rank. Choosing Pc = 50%, corresponds to食品伙伴个性空间DS2XWZa-N
an accumulated hazard value of 69.3%.食品伙伴个性空间)xkpl[UDml
The relationship between the logarithm of storage time (log t) and the logarithm食品伙伴个性空间un?q\(jo#A%s7T*yK!_
of hazard value (log H) is linear:食品伙伴个性空间5U6t)T d KEp
log t = (1/b) log H + log a (19.16)
]3q-av6|S/Y!bo dsFy0where b is the shape parameter and a is the scale parameter. The shelf life can then
8`7r_J1N-E%qC)]Y0be determined based on the desired probability level allowed for product failure. The食品伙伴个性空间k:O6j#T'aQ4ef9M
lower this probability, the shorter the shelf life. This plot then allows one to make a食品伙伴个性空间a7V$_+G&F3W6Cf C5u+L
management decision with respect to the probability of displeasing a certain fraction of食品伙伴个性空间?D$h-m] h
consumers. It is hoped that the distribution time is such that greater than 99 percent of食品伙伴个性空间hr.OU!bpT~0M6x
the product is consumed before the end of shelf life based on displeasing less than食品伙伴个性空间_V l.d~oQ
X% of consumers where X is the economic value. An detailed example was given by
U*dy O@{%^*Z3fV0Labuza and Schmidl (1988). It should be noted that this process can also be used for食品伙伴个性空间e#D%~#A:B5P
simple analytical tests such as plate counts or vitamin C. In these cases the number of
~h/W0D};^0panelists are replaced with the number of samples tested. Some criterion such as 20%
._-ih$g:dW0vitamin C loss is used as the negative response. Figure 19.9 shows an example of
6d O-o6{ [B"}xY0Weibull plot for a frozen food based on assumed data. A shelf life of 16 months is
FC1ejf1G r9J(u$F021
$B!I%|#|i/W0found at Pc = 50% from the graph. From this graph then, if 95% of the food were食品伙伴个性空间9X&D!M;M3J[
distributed and consumed in 3 weeks, only 1% of the consumers would be displeased
Vz&vp[nbVX0.01 .1 1 10 100 1000食品伙伴个性空间#n'rES8}!|~6[Q u
1
7p0J;Xo @'r9^)]010
3} Jz6| n*L0100
0t C(RSY&S0Cumulative hazard (%)
HLVk~0Shelf life (wk)食品伙伴个性空间N:E'v(o+f7fwycg"|
Probability (%)食品伙伴个性空间9r-I I+C8HrmG(XC!g
0.01 0.1 1 10 50 99.99
,O1z] CC$tq4kB+l0Figure 19.9 An example of Weibull plot for a frozen food.
{VwtG0A shelf life of 16 wk was determined at Pc = 50%.
g4V?x6W{}Q0(or 0.95% of the product is out of compliance). If the rest were held and consumed at
Hy%XWF+~010.5 weeks, 50% of those eating it would have out of quality food or another 0.5 x 5%食品伙伴个性空间:prt7XYW:['h(~
= 2.5% of product. Thus in this distribution model about 3.5% of the product is
'e&fE;q,C}cN9x0unacceptable. To improve on this, the product must either move faster or one must食品伙伴个性空间!z'a{(gk
distribute it at a lower temperature. Wittinger and Smith (1986) used this approach to
*fB4h,]L:A0determine sensory shelf life of ice cream based on iciness and found a shelf life of 5食品伙伴个性空间 r:Nk)xrG#i@tu
weeks at 0°F (-15.5) which fits the general data for iciness in ice cream as shown in食品伙伴个性空间oD"FD1Yig1zy
Figure 19.10 (Labuza, 1982). It should be noted that this gives a Q10 of about 12.
$ug8T!l4oZ]m022食品伙伴个性空间.GkU:n:aST;@
.1
!_H-S Dt,dU]v/~a01食品伙伴个性空间"bj\RC!h p+thH
10食品伙伴个性空间7Y,[ DqY b t*cZ7~
100食品伙伴个性空间4]v1f@9eN5e9[-M0j+\e5t
Temperature °C
rK]S+Np01食品伙伴个性空间,l6Mk+Jl ?&G)e
10食品伙伴个性空间1`q f$f%^.f
100食品伙伴个性空间's]PA"Jc)\4f
-30 -20 -10 0食品伙伴个性空间3C,n)|;{2uL|l0m
0.1
`&Y)D;T}5D ^Y0weeks
%lzvfo}8Qr0Figure 19.10 Shelf life plot for ice cream based on icyness
q IG`5f!L0perception from data of Labuza (1992)
4K1cJZ$|!Mf5C019.3.3 General procedures食品伙伴个性空间"EW-``!Ut:Lv
Shelf life testing experiments are designed to measure the average shelf-life of a
#W5tKXE\$Sp[0product under given conditions. General procedures for shelf life testing of foods were食品伙伴个性空间M(?0xiiO,M4zv
proposed by Labuza and Schmidl (1985), which include:食品伙伴个性空间 w&f%GV2AuPN
Step 1: Develop testing protocol — The protocol should consist of: i) specific
{ j1~ @$tcmgk0objective; ii) detailed test design in terms of product, package, and storage condition;食品伙伴个性空间X]Fb9G`%F*W5U
iii) execution procedures in terms of time, space and resource availability; iv) cost
(V"o$`'p_!Sp;f0estimation.食品伙伴个性空间uAFH%B]0N
Step 2: Identify key quality indicator — Any previous shelf life data and kinetic
|3fB]*~0parameters of food deterioration available in the literature (Labuza, 1982; Man and
,g,[5iZ5gBtxv [a0Jones, 1994) or the distribution turnover time of a similar or a competitive product in食品伙伴个性空间7F&miVo
the market place, if any, would be very helpful in this preliminary identification or in
.d.FJ%\ W[ L"C ?0determining the shelf life requirement.食品伙伴个性空间D5b {HR)qn
Step 3: Estimate product sample and control needs — The number of samples食品伙伴个性空间nSG8BI
and controls required should be based on the detailed experimental design. If食品伙伴个性空间z3D,su V
sufficient product is available, extra samples should be placed into each storage食品伙伴个性空间wJL%\(_ p2sPw
23食品伙伴个性空间 Y1wCZ*?g P QG
condition. Now and then it may be necessary to recheck a sample, especially if a value
_'X~{CY,q0]K0is not in line with other data. It would be disastrous to be out of sample before failure
7A0]7S|$o*sG0has occurred or the predetermined termination of the test is reached. Extra controls食品伙伴个性空间 n2aP eK_F1v9v(hK
should also be prepared and stored. When the samples are placed into storage
x$x0rKME$I1_0J0rooms, they should be positioned so that the complete package is exposed to the食品伙伴个性空间~J!nW&?0b
external atmosphere, unless otherwise specified. The specific location of the test食品伙伴个性空间+WO$dJ,tNu a-v0@
sample should be recorded. Temperature controllers should be checked for accuracy,食品伙伴个性空间U\Z"F,CW
periodically. In addition, removal of all unused samples from the storage room to make食品伙伴个性空间[Y1A0x(Tk&V/e I
space for future studies is a must.
1k]n(V1n I@2rj0There are various thoughts when it comes to using a control product. Some食品伙伴个性空间1`4F%Z&f6u
sensory experts prefer an actual physical control; others are satisfied to just use the食品伙伴个性空间%h?#y9o"Z]/l vm
numbers obtained in the zero time evaluation. There are three alternatives when using
:E-yvu2Nu J0a physical example as a control: (i) making the control from scratch each time using食品伙伴个性空间)f9O!VDq H
the same ingredients, procedures, etc.; (ii) deep-freezing the control (e.g. pizza held at
"M:\m6\aZ c8y4zRs0-70 °C) and accepting that it might have changed slightly, but minimally compared to食品伙伴个性空间B#Ya/M?-e3H1u s)x
the product in shelf life; (iii) using a fresh batch of product which may not be identical.
J9aX*Y*A/x6E#A0Step 4: Select proper package materials and package size — This is largely食品伙伴个性空间!^@$d"s_2U}:PQ X Z
dependent on shelf life requirements, packaging costs and availability, and consumer食品伙伴个性空间J;f oa6m;i0N;[
information. Factors such as vacuum packaging, nitrogen flushing, or use of食品伙伴个性空间4e6Gs5in6v
antioxidants are often considered in combination with packaging materials.食品伙伴个性空间Rg8lWHtVNo"Lo
Step 5: Choose storage conditions — Storage conditions are chosen based食品伙伴个性空间L+Bc/HDRc,\L
on the type of shelf life testing. For example, the intended commercial
V#g^Bd5fy0storage/distribution temperature range should be used in confirmatory shelf life testing.
+Z6x1xmn&`'ck0Elevated temperatures are often used in accelerated shelf life testing to obtain data for
`5U)[.}7D v0prediction of shelf life at lower temperature or for prediction of shelf life under variable
R"m0R4\7Ss G0time-temperature distributions. Humidity control and/or monitoring is less important for食品伙伴个性空间$X*?SZs5\2V|u
frozen foods as compared to other foods (e.g., snacks, cakes, pies, and pastries).食品伙伴个性空间 h&c8z oF+bo
Light in the room should be properly controlled depending on the package.食品伙伴个性空间&oU(n~Ugi \)|:j(w
Step 6: Estimate sampling frequency and duration of testing — The sampling食品伙伴个性空间 f}^*|5_e[$C_0h
frequency is generally an estimation based upon experience from prior studies with
5wS(\^%_*MD|0similar foods. However, once one knows an interval at one temperature, then the
}?%wx| G jU0intervals at other temperatures can be estimated using a Q10 value i.e., if the Q10 is 3食品伙伴个性空间{2m zq/hB_O:I
then for a 10°C lower temperature the sampling times can be 3 times longer. If the
p7A0r$P0B4}RX wc Z0interval between sampling is too long, the risk of under- or over-estimating shelf life
%t H r S;m"^,J X3^0increases. The more analyses that are completed, the more accurate will be the shelf食品伙伴个性空间(oo,b/a#sU([X
life determination.食品伙伴个性空间r3h$a ws-[
24食品伙伴个性空间!X"x }f6H5x
The question as to when one should end the experiment must be based on
2Yl's6@6c4XG0some pre-set criteria for failure. One criterion could be the minimum shelf life食品伙伴个性空间Kx?tDtc'~W
requirement driven by product category, distribution chain, and the benchmark's食品伙伴个性空间)E2{d0\W
product stability. If there is an accompanying sensory test, the end time can be based食品伙伴个性空间5i5Mx3aV'Vj
on some organoleptic inferior quality criteria from which one then can get a microbial食品伙伴个性空间\0b;j5l{Taf
or chemical index limit. For frozen products, several weeks to months are usually
h!L+J*a!DJ.I0needed. If the shelf life can be estimated with any accuracy, the test intervals can be
3eLn/sL^w*Nc0lengthened and clustered around the expected failure period. Most of the experts only
z-C6j;jY E0require about six evaluations to provide reliable results.食品伙伴个性空间Q B6_ jU%K%x[k
Step 7: Schedule for execution — Before scheduling the starting date for a shelf
j l#CmFl(~9P0life test, one must check for the availability of ingredients, packaging materials, and
;^-CN!Bx/x6{_)]0storage space, and the time and resource available in the pilot plant or in the食品伙伴个性空间6ee.Ti.i)orMm
processing plant to prepare the samples. One should also check for the time and食品伙伴个性空间T+ZsZ#W4Z]k
resources available in the microbial lab, the analytical lab and/or the sensory support食品伙伴个性空间A3IJ M2qABM
staff throughout the test period. A copy of the test request and schedule should be
3v5p,n&Pn0sent in advance to those who will be doing the work. The courtesy of providing those食品伙伴个性空间 |M@k t
involved with this advance information always pays dividends. Holidays should be
d] r6o [,b(Dl/yI0marked on the scheduling calendar, since scheduling too many evaluations near食品伙伴个性空间S)[!f6h_ G?p Q+X"q
major holidays or Friday afternoon is not recommended. However, once scheduled,
{X%cjR0I U0sample observations on weekends and holidays should not be skipped over, since食品伙伴个性空间Q*@7_2wQ$v"e4xsA'D
important data points could be missed.食品伙伴个性空间p"x D-c-sp?6D R
Step 8: Take sample and evaluate quality — Samples should be taken and
4c"dn k*N0M/~/q1zM,m0evaluated following pre-determined schedules. Sampling plans should be
"iQ}4yC0administratively and economically feasible, taking into account the heterogeneity of食品伙伴个性空间#^ K'CUM`UGN
the food. Maxcy and Wallen (1983) pointed out the problem of heterogeneity of食品伙伴个性空间3ZLv)ecfT0jv
samples in shelf life prediction. Multiple subsamples (³ 3) should be done for nonhomogenous
c_Or]0samples. A single package is usually used as an experimental unit.
i!t*m^Xm4k(iSK@0Replication of 3 or 4 units are desired for each measurement. For frozen foods, a食品伙伴个性空间(x%Au%sm7cV4g"o
thawing process is often involved in the sampling procedure. Proper thawing or食品伙伴个性空间Jz:}U2?2d
microwave heating is critical to the product quality. All samples should be thawed or食品伙伴个性空间Mj/]m8w(N%x.xg+v8Z ]
microwaved in the same way to minimize any biases.食品伙伴个性空间+nP)V!L:o;V aHV3b
The intended analyses should be based on the specific mode of deterioration,食品伙伴个性空间oGO'N:Ao:j*i r
which was discussed earlier. Whatever the choice, the tests should be reasonable and
/Zj{N#o0logical. The key is to make sure that one is measuring the right thing. If the wrong食品伙伴个性空间ca`$V3o9K1`2Ld
quality factor is measured, the test starts out a failure. Unfortunately, in many cases this食品伙伴个性空间d0oa:jAc4?(k
cannot be established initially, so sensory evaluation is a must in almost all shelf life食品伙伴个性空间9Y$YExXd
25食品伙伴个性空间:T2k5o,^nInpM
tests. Key sensory evaluation techniques for frozen foods have been discussed食品伙伴个性空间+?_ I4wc ^4OK"uK
before.食品伙伴个性空间O#q6EDUqS
At the time of each pull, one unit of the sample should be evaluated (informally
?Hp8U N4y!D0by a minimum of 2-3 people) for changes in flavor and texture. This should be done in食品伙伴个性空间y8d!quY:Mo V q
addition to the final tasting prior to a consumer sensory test. This is necessary since it食品伙伴个性空间,v(w GNE9O"R4`!E
helps the developer know approximately how the product is doing during the progress食品伙伴个性空间 _&]W3^]AF'Y
of the shelf-life, helping to avoid any surprises in the results. Control samples may食品伙伴个性空间P&_j.n z;p
need to be prepared fresh.食品伙伴个性空间+u?;x U:kH2lu
Step 9: Analyze data — Shelf life is the predicted day at which the stored食品伙伴个性空间rV+y4n8Ez3Rw(~3C
product (test pull) is X% less than the control at day zero (Reference). The data should
/J5}H&g0N Y;D8R0be plotted and regressed to determine that point using the proper model (zero or first).
1t4Td[)`~[2A"c5g0All too often the data are not analyzed until the experiment is over and then the食品伙伴个性空间3Cq Q7i:_/s9y
scientist finds that nothing can be concluded because of lack of points or a poor fit or
r#U},Hq%R0some surprises. Statistical curve fitting should be consistent with the chosen model
7PI5ja#onM|/t$q0based on a theoretical mechanism. The amount of change and number of data points食品伙伴个性空间%U} D.~9~ I_
are related to the coefficient of variation (CV) of the test. A weighting factor may be
%X k m5I E3Gq'o0used in estimating the rate constant and its statistical limits. When the data for an食品伙伴个性空间5PzN5aOGO
attribute does not fit the regression model well (adjusted R2 of < 0.8), scientific食品伙伴个性空间M+O;xQ/nA4L"{
judgment should be used to decide whether the data are applicable.
g[.jX6|5u*pD0When in doubt, a rerun on retention samples might help understand or clarify
*R)sV Y;c`$o,hh0the results. Error analysis could be performed before experiments are run by first
w.o+~ @o&C0finding inherent errors in time, temperature, and quality index measurements, then食品伙伴个性空间0tmwR g8E^t
calculating an expected standard deviation for the plot being used to determine a rate
VX&u~ Uza3v0constant. If the experimental data have a standard deviation much higher than the食品伙伴个性空间L0xb*t9R n
expected value, either the functional form of the rate expression is incorrect or the data食品伙伴个性空间(i-yP LOp`1|_dhp
contain errors from unanticipated sources.食品伙伴个性空间qB \quB
Step 10: Prepare shelf life report — Depending on the type of shelf life食品伙伴个性空间U.gef3Z/p
determination, the results should either throw light on the technical viability of the
u e}#Hx#_[0product or provide answers to the questions about the maximum safe shelf life as well
&PG7yN0j8B0as the maximum quality shelf life of the product. Before a shelf life is finally set, factors食品伙伴个性空间Xj xOD!zP*?
in the scale-up of shelf life data will need to be taken into consideration. Based on
(?:]u$QM2|@ a0results from ASLT, the provisional shelf life will be set for the product. There is no
Y&tC1kyWf0government regulation which defines the product end point except for that related to
J4JD*`bp+J HbL;~0nutrient levels (vitamin C and vitamin A) in 21 CFR 101.9(g)(1)(ii) which states that for
Ta$z-X'B1w A0the vitamins listed, the analysis level cannot be below 80% of the label value if it is a
s)d6f.iR R0natural food with no added nutrients or cannot be below 100% (21 CFR 101.9(g)(1)(i))
0?:aL0O[4V['|026
{ rWlD.H0]/?K0if the product has any added vitamin or nutrient whether or not it is the nutrient under
a[$e&L#}b qew I0test. Thus one must base the label value on some predicted initial variability and
y4H@U;wE0some predicted loss during distribution and storage. The FDA usually takes samples at
_b5^.fKC9rJ:u2W0the supermarket level (where they can purchase them) for compliance testing, not from
s(pOM P1J1t0the end of the process line so distribution losses must be factored in.食品伙伴个性空间8D[;^ X$^|}
The end point of shelf life is thus dependent on your corporate objectives and
G ~O@#C-M)]bU_#CY C0how much risk the company is willing to take with the brand. No shelf life test is
N&LD k@2R;\-o6R0completed until a termination summary has been written. All termination summaries食品伙伴个性空间8^2`;GEe!Hd3?
should include the objective of the test, product descrīption, package descrīption,食品伙伴个性空间 i{4LLC3V'}
conditions and length of storage, methods of evaluation, results (in the form of graphs,食品伙伴个性空间7Da9y f h:r-~
shelf life plots and Q10 values) and conclusions. Termination summaries should食品伙伴个性空间8R G2}X!j!dZm*Ddm
become a permanent record in the company library for future reference and preferably
l:E&f q FXgyhn0indexed well on a computer data base for later retrieval when needed. The final shelf
n+?}kji0life should also be set to give a clear margin of safety. In any case, the shelf life of a食品伙伴个性空间!ElK)[S_2nY
new product, particularly of the high risk category, should be set based on data that食品伙伴个性空间5k r-I#EZ8P?
relate to the worst case manufacturing and storage scenario. The shelf life can then
Cg h4E ] g Pj0be reviewed and if necessary re-set in the light of further experience in manufacturing食品伙伴个性空间c{ xT}5c
and control after the product has been launched.
7fC%M{uJ^7S"NLh0Step 11: Implementation — One should get top management’s approval of the食品伙伴个性空间k1fsS w3X5@r"M/E
test results so that they can be implemented. Management must believe and support
h{.Z6kE5BdD0those test results. It is important for production, sales, distribution, purchasing and食品伙伴个性空间 PH]6w j*CU
quality control to work together to be sure that the production is properly handled from
`n.uf;]@Ma6K0the time of manufacture until this product is consumed.
L~ gBCmaC"y019.4 Challenge study食品伙伴个性空间iH"h I&z0]
19.4.1 Basis食品伙伴个性空间9~x't%H5U4s
Freezing reduces the microbial population of foods but considerable numbers usually
mc B t6|[ vzl'D)]l0survive even prolonged frozen storage. A challenge study is often used in the
'm G!JMH7u0laboratory to study the factors and factor interactions as they affect the shelf life of the食品伙伴个性空间Ji(vDdE"N
product. Such simulated experiments enable the researcher to better control the study.
H a&\y(D0A challenge study is necessary for frozen foods for two reasons: (i) to predict microbial
B \&H#C\gYq0growth and potential risk of the product upon temperature abuse in a distribution
Y)N:a\cu1[;saJ0chain; and (ii) to assess the relative stability and the relative risk of different formula,食品伙伴个性空间 e!k4t&v@f q%jD
different processes or different packaging materials, which is a must in new product食品伙伴个性空间7pb6lLS.]I4i'?8z
development. A challenge study may also be considered as a preliminary shelf life
\ nd$y0A'H0determination in terms of microbiological safety. It is often used in the early stage of食品伙伴个性空间$UC']*`r/N J&j
27食品伙伴个性空间1EV O*K u!V_!q
development since if microbial safety is a concern at this stage, then reformulating can
i'Hf$s(| O p){-MX0be done quickly.
lh(_/E M5MM019.4.2 Microbial abuse procedures
@9a*V9U4U |0Step 1: Identify barriers — A composition/ingredient analysis should be done to食品伙伴个性空间UC$eP f
identify any barrier(s) against spoilage microbes and pathogens in case of
~D.lTqxq7gxS0temperature abuse.
@'yA1Py$nk\0Step 2: Choose types of organisms/strains and inoculation level — One
$q.cz6weRt0principle is to use an organism or a strain that has been isolated previously from the食品伙伴个性空间 Y ^P4Va:D;HX
product or similar foods which is responsible for spoilage or risk. The more isolates in
)B3m#F t.]"KZ0the study, the greater is the confidence in the accuracy of the shelf life assessment. An食品伙伴个性空间OgQd%V jl
inoculation level must also be determined, which is generally much higher than the食品伙伴个性空间k,e%e N;D2\ k
normal contamination level in a product. If the average contamination level for a
E_H+K4NG5T3g0particular product is known, then the inoculation level should be as close to that level
+h}@:}pveb0as possible. Sometimes several inoculation levels are used.食品伙伴个性空间)Y!h0F'T1g/T2w-|
Step 3: Determine temperature abuse conditions — After inoculation, products食品伙伴个性空间(zZ'\.aN2shg'f)R0pg
should be packaged using the desired commercial packaging conditions, and食品伙伴个性空间`M$iG |#w6A(z)]
subjected to temperature abuse. Factorial design and response surface methodology
^2eI:x ](z,}0H*i#N0are often used in designing a challenge study. A typical temperature abuse condition食品伙伴个性空间[ qit$AZ-wD3n(E3g
used by some food companies is provided in Table 19.5. It starts out with five sets of食品伙伴个性空间.D3]Fl(R} \4D4H;HS.g
test packages placed at -18 °C to begin the cycle. At the end of the first 24 hr, one set
f~D6Ef t*q^0of packages is removed and tested for microbiological indicators to establish a zerotime食品伙伴个性空间VM\P$Gh
level. All the other packages are kept at -18 °C for the next 20 hr, then removed食品伙伴个性空间kN)?(DCdz1P
and abused by placing them at 38 °C for 4 hr. Another set of packages is then食品伙伴个性空间t+_!l`-bb6h
removed for microbiological testing, and the cycle is repeated for the remaining
+l~HyAuBg1Y0packages, i.e. they are all returned to -18 °C for at least 20 hr, then abused at 38 °C食品伙伴个性空间'w#K1?/[2s-Vq
for 4 hr. This procedure is repeated so that one set goes through at least four freezethaw
v)~*X bWoN0cycles. If there is no significant increase in spoilage organisms or pathogenic食品伙伴个性空间$m4R#y6Z5i^8{YW
organisms after the fourth cycle, the food is deemed safe microbiologically.食品伙伴个性空间DO.nR I@!r)e?&o
28
6tz8G;u i;D-TH ^0Table 19.5 A typical temperature abuse test sequence for microbial challenge
z0_2D)kO0studies
d@'|2J)}&]0Day Abuse temperature cycle Number of package sets食品伙伴个性空间y%i2^Y H/y0o
remaining食品伙伴个性空间tt4iK&?h-\
1 24 hr at -18 °C 5
| i&G7~5|@1q/B\M aB02 20 hr at -18 °C
1E"}3Mx0b5}04 hr at 38 °C
r-Kh:S/a04
{ Yoy?j@03 20 hr at -18 °C食品伙伴个性空间SMK2j#fB%\
4 hr at 38 °C
A e`em Y"b~Y03
gY |X9v&S04 20 hr at -18 °C食品伙伴个性空间.c7rM^V$C8m
4 hr at 38 °C食品伙伴个性空间Y~#SY*D H"E
2食品伙伴个性空间L'f7D/{+B*aV;z@
5 20 hr at -18 °C
w,DmC8C,j\c04 hr at 38 °C食品伙伴个性空间BeM qV|P
1食品伙伴个性空间'Z1Q q Cb0JN9f b;q+}
Source: Labuza and Schmidl (1985)食品伙伴个性空间a~*V d&lA
Step 4: Do microbial survival analysis — This is to find out if there are any
%NC2| RI;bM0microbial growth upon temperature abuse or if the inoculated microbes survived the
)VK}{;? U8A0process. Appropriate detection and enumeration techniques should be used.
b'b'Xn;| _'S)d Z+Zk019.4.3 Applicability食品伙伴个性空间beu$]JeQ3w
The use of inoculated pack studies conducted by independent laboratories allows a食品伙伴个性空间TUL/Y y[3Ja
food processor to assess the relative risks that can occur under conditions of食品伙伴个性空间Zx{8d{ I
temperature abuse of the food product in question. Taking frozen pizza as an
A!M3ek/yypi0example, both the cheese and sausage, if naturally fermented, will have high total食品伙伴个性空间(Ffp"}.Prz
counts of bacteria. Since the product is usually partially pre-baked and then frozen, the
4S&F x zNvPb(k0numbers of vegetative microorganisms will decrease until thawing occurs.食品伙伴个性空间#U)|2PPq1Ae@
Unfortunately, pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus will not be totally
f d6g0E$q(iQE-t e0inactivated by these treatments. If the product is abused during distribution so食品伙伴个性空间4al[j[7mC4J\1~7B$y S
severally that the temperature near the surface reaches about 7 °C, pathogens may食品伙伴个性空间i$K&RmU"J2MS
grow. A challenge study with Staphylococcus aureus will verify the microbial safety
,l)X%b]EH0of the product.食品伙伴个性空间!y6Is"oD'];sZ
It should be noted that inoculated pack studies with pathogens should not be
s R5u"|5sm0conducted in food industry laboratories that are located close to the food processing食品伙伴个性空间1v)zb_n!k"e5S
facilities because of the possible transfer of pathogens to food products. No sensory
A Do(sq-]7p029
1MD;b!{.c7z0panel can be applied to evaluate the inoculated samples other than visual
A1@OLjUv0observation.食品伙伴个性空间6^/H.|_6dUF"U&}z u
19.5 Accelerated shelf life testing
\IuGvbgC,n019.5.1 Basis
7Tf0i/Os m0During product development, preliminary shelf life knowledge is often needed in食品伙伴个性空间:\$T;n:b)x2mIf m
addition to microbiological safety. Shelf life testing experiments at this stage are often食品伙伴个性空间 W#bC W hQ5vy
accelerated to evaluate the effects of various formulation and processing parameters
ZK9i#S-a@ O`K0on shelf life stability of the product being developed periodically since one can not食品伙伴个性空间)W&od{TP
afford the relatively long shelf life period for a frozen food stored under normal freezing
Ia hU V K0conditions. In addition, temperature fluctuations may occur in distribution and retail食品伙伴个性空间k PQ,a-c Z
holding for frozen storage. Thus kinetic studies at several temperatures within that食品伙伴个性空间|I7Art
range are necessary to predict its shelf life. Accelerated shelf life testing conducted at食品伙伴个性空间.uRa/b8A4^Tio
elevated isothermal temperatures and/or with freeze/thaw cycles for frozen products
)nU,X@VY0tA0have been used extensively for several decades by industry and government
{G9H!iX]5d0agencies (Labuza and Schmidl, 1985). The Arrhenius relation and the Q10 approach
G4V@&`,N/gLdo|0are used to extrapolate the results to the expected lower storage temperature.食品伙伴个性空间9b)]I~.N
Acceleration factors other than temperature have also been studied for some other食品伙伴个性空间jo%uCm-tS$o.s
deterioration modes, such as moisture gain or loss and lipid oxidation (Labuza, 1984),
q z#dS4v ?0D f0but rarely done for frozen foods.食品伙伴个性空间+GV0Ht/TC
19.5.2 Unique procedures食品伙伴个性空间Q#QDGqk_
Step 1: Clarify test objectives — In general there are two occasions where食品伙伴个性空间*f+ua&hV8Y2l0b+`&g
ASLT applies: i) estimate approximate shelf life quickly during development stage; ii)食品伙伴个性空间m1e j@I?]m
collect kinetic parameters for actual shelf life prediction as in the marketplace, which is
^"r1^X4?'E0conducted generally near the launch phase.食品伙伴个性空间-Mp9QI:Zv"L;G
Step 2: Select accelerating temperature conditions — Suggested isothermal
'Z)u e!izm*{l0accelerating conditions for frozen foods are -15, -10, and -5 °C with a control stored at食品伙伴个性空间7ljgO"CDxy(Q
< -40 °C (Labuza and Schmidl, 1985). The inherent assumption is that the食品伙伴个性空间J(T7l*AKC}&R
deterioration mechanism is the same across the temperature range although as noted
]$a2k3F7o.g0earlier, there is concern about how close to freezing one can go.
nc-c s/BT`9\T0Moisture migration from the food into the surrounding air with resulting食品伙伴个性空间E t)PF)BM
desiccation of the food and ice crystal formation in the package is a major mode of
mM#x1y2yO"Dh0deterioration of frozen foods under fluctuation temperature conditions. Cycling
l)r9Z)HsHH2Y0temperature storage is used to test for this, i.e. from 0 °F or 10 °F up to 20 °F with one食品伙伴个性空间&rAg Q)ixw*q
day at each temperature and then repeated several times. A freeze-thaw cycling study食品伙伴个性空间j Q+j#Q gFk R3^)[K
is also needed to determine its effect on sensory quality. Usually, the high temperature
(v!| hf.W(i:J030
8zC:yil#`*X:yJ0can be much lower than that used in a microbial challenge study unless microbial
} Zey:rq0survival is still a concern. Typically, cycling temperature/time can be three to five 24食品伙伴个性空间"qY!{7n`I vN(}
hour cycles between -18 °C and -7 °C, or between - 18 °C and 7 °C, depending on
#GJ\ T[0|&P$L"Y0the product.
bBT2[z~D'q1o0Step 3: Estimate testing time and sampling frequency— Testing times are食品伙伴个性空间5UC/Vg7V%p!e
dependent on a desired shelf life at target storage conditions. For example, given that食品伙伴个性空间m;R;KF,UW ztX
a shelf life of 12 months at -18 °C is desired, a shelf life plot can be constructed. Figure
OZT U/v,L/_3L!q019.11 indicates the test time at -4 °C that equates to 12 months at -18 °C for various
&sq$g"} k0Q10 values. Sampling times at -4 °C should thus be 1 wk, 2 wk, 1 month, 3 months, and
p xQC-``5wO i04.5 -5 months. Most published results suggest that Q10 values for vitamin C loss and食品伙伴个性空间hl6z J:gm5r
quality loss in frozen vegetables range from 2 to 20 and that the shelf life of vegetables
'^6q*t0K4s6?"F0is only 6-8 months at -18 °C (Labuza, 1982). Considering these Q10 values, a product食品伙伴个性空间-jtc7KUcB-WLa@
that does not retain good quality for 4.5 months at -4 °C may not retain good quality for食品伙伴个性空间V+W6Fy$Q
12 months at -18 °C. This also suggests the sampling frequency shown in Table 19.6.食品伙伴个性空间#w,l X Ot;m&j(B l
All simple tests should be conducted at each sampling time, while sensory testing食品伙伴个性空间 p {N R6? H%B`yk
should be concentrated mainly toward the end of the test sequence with a few near the食品伙伴个性空间Er"@nkj7i%j
beginning.
v:]d R(Bu00 5 10 15 20 25 30
"aU8atc|"k.L!~#d0.1食品伙伴个性空间'v)@+_x(U MJi
1食品伙伴个性空间Z4b#Q1U/mGN
10
?c:rT0fF{0100食品伙伴个性空间icG/c5qpv)F{
T (°F)
8uHdYl0Shelf life 12 mo at 0食品伙伴个性空间Vf!MY4NDx
ASLT at 25 °F
%IS9|F5T{_04.5 mo食品伙伴个性空间^z@ VfHw
1.2 mo食品伙伴个性空间-c[-m3EQX
14 days食品伙伴个性空间Sq{+j_kr
6 days食品伙伴个性空间3a:_zc d_9bS+{
Q10=2
7yV9K&McMO#Y!K0Q10=5食品伙伴个性空间s"Db9ZY D7|
Q10=10
L!M pU*b;A#@G0Q10=20食品伙伴个性空间O,mBIE d?D~
Figure 19.11 Shelf life testing times at 25 °F equivalent to 12 mo at 0 °F
z }&wq\0for various Q10 values.
z"AJ,f Rgh)Cs0Table 19.6 Sampling frequency for frozen pizza ASLT
m@3h-| lb4lif w031食品伙伴个性空间{o8n0@s(TyZ L
Temperature (°C) Sampling times (wk)食品伙伴个性空间?q wf"i&m;f
- 4 1, 2*, 3, 4, 5, 8, 12, 14, 16*, 20*食品伙伴个性空间L'B~+Tn/d!FI
- 7 2, 4*, 10, 15*, 20*食品伙伴个性空间a:Tk B*Z&b
- 10 4*, 10, 15*, 20*
7Y[-g1yb0* Sensory test times Source: Labuza (1986)
3s7|4}9W|9l0Step 4: Determine end point — Figure 19.12 shows a comparison of times to
B6g0WD.N;hF$m0various levels for the loss of vitamin C in frozen spinach as a function of temperature食品伙伴个性空间d'I$J^}x.T!e0N2qe
(Kramer, 1974). The dotted line represents the 80/80 rule, i.e., from a legal standpoint,
!x"TUZ|4v+^H0for natural products, 80% of the tested sample must have no more than a loss of 20%
F}#x"B%m^+d*GQc0(i.e. 80% of the label value). Consumer sensory testing will not always give such a食品伙伴个性空间5F-@ D3~I)AC7qk OS
clear shelf-life result since different shelf life times can result using different quality
)Gd3F'T#vya0attributes. Often professional judgment has to be made to decide what factor to use as
P(X8^;zi?A0the base for the end of shelf-life of the product. When shelf life is unacceptably short,
YN/@,pn;@ r Z0adjustments should be made to the food, its environment, packaging, process and
~ E(Q;j:?_ l!D6aw0hygienic conditions, until a suitable extension of shelf life can be achieved. For some食品伙伴个性空间%Ygd3t+o `C8J
products, the test results may demonstrate that the target shelf life is not attainable. At
ZB#ByxP"u0this point, the question of whether to launch the new product with a shorter shelf life or食品伙伴个性空间&X5Gv-S{yI&}
to abandon the entire project becomes a marketing decision.食品伙伴个性空间R8r9V [/hk5KV
-20 -10 0 1 0
'Oc/?8pJ#~;C~ N01食品伙伴个性空间 XXMCK:k[_ s:Q}R
10食品伙伴个性空间&v+S z!M lH#FZE
100食品伙伴个性空间7NjU*p9pO
Storage Temperature (°F)
4V6D'_7Z F5w:_H e0Shelf life (mo)食品伙伴个性空间kx RC/F~ ar{S
Figure 19.12
p7u3g f;M5L [l0Shelf life of frozen spinach as a function of vitamin loss level
"a c8@;D%oX7ly.Wu9q050% loss
(Xg/Yd.d O@ie0I025% loss食品伙伴个性空间[x qFU8YP"Mm
10% loss食品伙伴个性空间 Nhi,}VAM"Hr6d
Quality (80/80 rule)食品伙伴个性空间n}7s4SMz|
32食品伙伴个性空间N,iP @&sv
Step 5: Estimate kinetic parameters — From each test storage condition,
N N Y~~&l7m0estimation of k or q is needed to make the appropriate shelf life plot. From this one can
-c4W/MYbdWiI0then estimate the potential shelf life and confidence interval for the storage condition.
b&lo%oK)el0Then parameters for the Arrhenius relation and the shelf life plot are determined by食品伙伴个性空间:b@/_ Ex;q
linear regression, which are used for shelf life prediction.
]Y+X'\qt1[b e&ex0Step 6: Extrapolate to normal freezing storage condition — The most useful
@)gK;V Em0shelf life information is obtained for product kept at its intended storage temperature,
zX-j"{+p-d,~G?0which is about -18°C for retail frozen products and -23°C for distribution of frozen
e4e%T#Z m8m0foods. Figure 19.13 demonstrates how the shelf life plot is used for extrapolation. It is食品伙伴个性空间2^)D5sg6EP-G
always a good practice to compare a model's prediction against actual experimental食品伙伴个性空间+^b+l GAV
results because of the potential for errors from using the higher temperature data as
,J!^Shl0noted earlier besides the other errors suggested by Labuza and Riboh (1982). In食品伙伴个性空间_u&m\"[ K[\
addition, the existence of a glass transition at a temperature between the test
FMji(C2i3\.X0temperature and the prediction temperature would lead to error as shown by Nelson
;SiM`-OAV0and Labuza (1994). In the case of frozen foods, most likely the error would be an
4P9i9e k5Am7us:_0under prediction of the shelf life.食品伙伴个性空间*V"Xzp~Ld9f2N^
ln Q食品伙伴个性空间!ai ~0c N5J
T
a9tEY8F5E0T1
Z&z+oV"c8KB'?w)M0T2食品伙伴个性空间L,z2F P \C)]
T3食品伙伴个性空间 dmx$b0{\)_#~
Ts (commercial storage temperature)
9y Hj L yv M ~AoX0Figure 19.13 Extrapolation from ASLT
e B Mn1V0Step 7: Predict quality loss for a fluctuating time-temperature distribution — The食品伙伴个性空间X;V&y'S;ur/G(g(Y
prediction is based on two assumptions: (1) that there is no history effect from the食品伙伴个性空间'W#f/U a*fch
time-temperature variation and (2) that the key deterioration mode does not change as食品伙伴个性空间zH.fu)^1n5Cv
a function of temperature. The frozen spinach data shown in Figure 19.12 is used in食品伙伴个性空间;m9IY;j \
the following example in Table 19.7 for a time-temperature distribution. The line
L,P4]|5P033食品伙伴个性空间,\)?&?W4Ch!u
equivalent to 20% loss is set as the end of shelf life limit i.e., if Ao = 36 mg/100 g then A
8O?fA0e2i5G@"[{W0at the end of shelf life is 0.8 x 36 or 28.8 mg or 7.2 mg of vitamin C can be lost. For
n5?3wA y]@x]0each temperature of exposure, the time on the 80/80 line is the time for 20% loss, thus
jea.F@f-_y!v s0at -10°F, the 20% loss (equivalent to 100% shelf life) time is 16.5 months. Thus for 6
.k2i'q+H:c-J`0months storage at -10°F, there is 6/16.5 or 36.3% of the shelf life lost and the amount食品伙伴个性空间cN C"s%[!Qp
left is 36 - 6.36 x 7.2 = 33.4 mg.
*zDnEc/w.r0Table 19.7 Estimation of quality remaining of frozen spinach after exposed to a
CP%Lsu:m0variable time-temperature history with Ao = 36 mg/100g spinach.食品伙伴个性空间DUi6sM ]c(p%?
Temperature
(B8vf2G.R IE!L0(°F)食品伙伴个性空间}*d)t GV;G)S
Time t食品伙伴个性空间7EJ aPdb m'O
(months)
Y o.v t`q0q shelf life食品伙伴个性空间(g:l2jEZ,SUi
(months)食品伙伴个性空间#k%|gf/X-?'~q
fcon食品伙伴个性空间YMx5_I"d
(t/q )食品伙伴个性空间*`BB/L0S o+O,cI}
Sfcon Aremaining食品伙伴个性空间?3y\fP\&y.\
(mg/100g)
(w5a bX`AXx$s\0-10 6 16.5 0.363 0.363 33.4食品伙伴个性空间~-k$G'y b\.Q+@
+3 1 4.5 0.256 0.619 31.5
BHRj,Bo|0+12 0.25 1.6 0.156 0.775 30.4食品伙伴个性空间 {\ y?O a h;F4Hi
Since as noted 80% of Ao is equal to 28.8 mg/100g at end of shelf life, this product is
-Lg)P.N*nmb.uD0still acceptable at the end of the set of three different time/temperature exposures. In
x#knA8T&P x)R0fact, the shelf life left @ 5 °F = (1-0.775) x 3.3 = 0.74 months = 22 days.
}^x"Xj,W#w)S019.5.3 Applicability
Z,f7c4j%j3] WZ v0Because of relatively long shelf life for frozen foods and the unique feature of freezing,
Iq3q hv"a0the degree of temperature elevation is largely limited. Prediction of actual shelf life
i \3vxO0from ASLT may be severely limited except in very simple food systems. Frozen foods食品伙伴个性空间 ]"R!Q Sm'k
such as frozen pizzas, may present problems with moisture migration. The moisture
v B[ i1I6ZP i0may diffuse from the pizza sauce which has a higher aw into the crust containing a
rZB:rdI }8cr0lower aw, creating a pizza crust that is limp and soggy. Product development scientists食品伙伴个性空间7Un8O%{ZJL
should only use the results as a guideline and must use as many storage conditions食品伙伴个性空间 yX%\z?M)l-q
as possible to minimize prediction errors.食品伙伴个性空间 tVl8{Q
34
P'z IP:BH0ASLT is just a quick method, which can not replace the normal storage tests
*h3j1x!@Ow*N4sc0discussed next. Once it is verified that the extrapolation may be wrong, i.e., too large
-Mz0fRJ7c*V0an error, then a careful look should be taken at the deterioration mode, the experiment
7VK#Z;ZBo'R0design and procedure, the data collected and the model developed. If the食品伙伴个性空间)Y}$a7Kicb+Ipx
extrapolation under predicts the true shelf life, then it becomes an economic concern, it
dCXB]%]+H'b QX0is over predicted, then reformulating may be necessary. If the shelf life prediction食品伙伴个性空间(KI [c x
indicates that the product meets the stability expectation, then the product has a食品伙伴个性空间t;@+m3O }r:{`s
chance of performing satisfactorily in the marketplace.
!Cfid9E^ I019.6 Confirmatory storage study
fj!D%d N"c"|019.6.1 Basis食品伙伴个性空间6v;rv Y'C!f
The difference in potential shelf life should be considered when scaling up from食品伙伴个性空间|_*CWiT
experimental test batches to pilot plant and then to full scale production. Experience
,NT r8e&Y!B(OquE0has shown that results of small-scale experiments in the laboratory may not be of食品伙伴个性空间!NAE3o ]0^DN ^X%c
much use for large-scale production (Graf and Saguy, 1991). Scale-up not only affects食品伙伴个性空间 iY:V(J{#s1J~ `
the processability and quality of a food product, but it often alters its shelf life.
WYUtB SG"C0Depending on the mode of failure and the food scientist's approach to inhibiting
@7`_R8Lm(n0microbial growth and chemical reactions leading to deterioration, scale-up may
4|3^}*R#Vo9TV0

TAG:

sunny leesunny 发布于2007-12-01 11:26:42
冷冻食品保质期试验.pdf
冷冻食品保质期试验.pdf

冷冻食品保质期试验.pdf
(2007-12-01 11:26:42, Size: 193 KB, Downloads: 185)

xldu发布于2007-12-04 13:25:24
正好想跟大家请教一个问题,食品的保质期是如何人确定的?
璇玑之 爱乐爱乐 发布于2007-12-04 13:40:14
晕就一个字食品论坛;食品社区Z3y
C5y3r1p+O

全是E文
洞庭码头 oliver2008twist 发布于2008-03-20 11:34:03
Very good book ,Thank you
chenfenna的个人空间 chenfenna 发布于2008-09-11 08:19:29
有点难度!
        f]e
W'dl
请哪位高人翻译翻译,就太感谢了!
XRH2004的个人空间 XRH2004 发布于2009-04-14 20:36:56
冷冻食品保质期
请高人能否把他翻译成中文
sunjm0320发布于2009-04-21 09:44:09
这个很有用的,谢谢啊!
wtao-0678发布于2009-04-26 11:32:36
英文的,看不懂啊,那位大虾给翻译翻译就更好了
麦香豆发布于2009-04-27 10:53:41
神呀!E文专业地!!
KX-T7665发布于2009-06-29 12:04:49
回复 1# leesunny 的帖子
正想找有關資料,謝謝
food86发布于2009-06-29 13:19:00
只能认识单个单个的词,那位高手翻译一下啊
clyde-chen的个人空间 clyde-chen 发布于2009-07-20 10:49:57
下载学习中,谢谢楼主!
食品专业户发布于2009-07-23 16:33:34
正好想跟大家请教一个问题,食品的保质期是如何人确定的?
论道-竹叶青 论道-竹叶青 发布于2009-07-23 22:22:16
楼主太抬举我的水平了!
heiniuzxf发布于2009-07-24 08:32:04
有需要翻译资料的找我:heiniuzxf@126.com
binggan1217发布于2009-07-24 09:18:26
下载学习中,谢谢楼主!
junshengwang67发布于2009-07-24 10:31:13
保质期有以下确定方法:1.国家法律法规规定.食品论坛,食品行业社区,关注食品安全、食品技术、食品质量、检测技术等MX3V5W
@x jv

  2.实验室确定的数据.3.经验数据.
spzhr发布于2009-07-24 16:45:34
好资料,谢谢楼主,就是看不懂英文
unwakenman发布于2009-10-10 17:03:04
英文就是更难准确理解
joseph612的个人空间 joseph612 发布于2010-06-15 11:29:17
谢谢分享,下载了好好研究!
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